Surface Waters

Surface Waters

Surface waters are studied by hydrology, the science related to the water over the Earth’s surface. Although the oceans are studied also by hydrologists, in this time the focus will be on water bodies that flow over lands. The Hydrologic Cycle is important to these water deposits because it circulates and recycles the liquid. As the oceans contain 97% of the water on the terrestrial surface, the remaining 3% it is found over land, as freshwater, in icebergs, and water steam. This water that can be found in land includes groundwater, freshwater and some deposits of salt water. The pollution and contamination of these water bodies will discuss below.

The water over land flows through streams, rivers, lakes and aquifers that are found within watersheds. A watershed is an area of land on slopes or valleys, which drains all the streams and rainfall to a common outlet, either by the ground surface or below it. As part of watersheds there are rivers, lakes and reservoirs, wetlands, estuaries and underground waters. Rivers are watercourses moving from a higher altitude to a lower altitude due to gravity, the water comes from precipitation and runoff that arrives to these water bodies. Lakes are where surface water has accumulated in a low place hollow relative to the surrounding countryside, while reservoirs are man made lakes, both can found in a watercourse or outside it. Wetlands are transitional areas between permanently flooded deep waters environments and well-drained uplands, can have freshwater, salt water or brackish water due to closeness to coast and mouth rivers; marsh, swamp and lagoons are examples of wetlands. Related to wetlands are estuaries, regions where freshwater binds from inland to sea water. Groundwater are these that seep throughout ground and are confined under it, examples of this are aquifers. 

   

All of these water bodies are exposed to the actions of humans. Some uses of surface water are: domestic use (water supply to population), agricultural use (crop irrigation), industrial use, generation of hydroelectric energy, recreation and navigation. These activities generate pollution for water. When surface water is not used appropriately, it can harm their use and therefore bring bad consequences to its nature. Most of these contaminants come from industrial and domestic use. The garbage and human waste as well as industrial waste generate pollution that arrives to rivers, lakes and reservoirs; therefore water quality decreases.

Water conservation is vital to humans and their natural environment. To make this, we can be careful with this resource and protect the quantity and quality of this liquid. Another advantage of conservation is the protection and conservation of the different organisms that live in these ecosystems. If each person helps to keep the surface water clean, it contributes to a better quality of life in society. Each water body has their importance to nature and to the society, but they are threatened by human activity, for this reason each person has the responsibility to keep and protect the surface water.  

References:

Information:

http://water.usgs.gov/edu/mearthsw.html

Alonso J., Serie Naturales. (1998). Descubrimiento 9 Ciencia Integrada.         

            Puerto Rico: Ediciones Santillana, Inc.

Pictures:

Luis Espada

The Oceans

The Oceans

Oceanography is another application of Earth Science and it consists in the study of the oceans and seas. These disciplines are subdivided into four branches: physical oceanography (related with the physical properties of oceans and seas), chemical oceanography (studies chemical properties), biological oceanography (studies the biological and ecological features of these water bodies) and geological oceanography (studies the geological nature of oceans). This multidiscipline science uses other sciences to investigate and understand the natural processes of oceans to know and predict their behavior. For this reason, oceanography studies everything related with these water bodies including their formation, natural processes, their origins, the life there and the interaction of humans with oceans, seas and also gulfs. Therefore, understanding the oceans is important to understand the relationship with other terrestrial phenomena.

Separating the ocean and sea term is important to have a clear picture of who they are. Oceans are very large salt water bodies with particular features that differentiate from continents, and seas are saltwater bodies much smaller than the oceans and usually they are delimited by land or islands. Earth oceans are Pacific (the bigger), Atlantic (an ocean with a S form and extending toward both poles), Indian (with a triangular form), Artic (located in the North Pole) and Antarctic (located in the South Pole), the last two are the smallest. Some of the most important seas of Earth are Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Dead Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, among many others. Gulfs, bays, narrows and inlets are also part of the oceans. Oceans, seas, and ocean ice compose the 97.957% of total volume of water that exists on Earth. In general terms, the greater amount of water of oceans was originated from the melting of the rocks and the impacts of meteors, these and other events cause that the water trapped in the rocks escapes to the atmosphere in form of water vapor and becoming liquid precipitate as rain. The salt in the oceans is the result of physic and chemical weathering of igneous rock of the Earth crust. The relief, depth, composition and slope of the oceans are also studied by oceanographers.

In the oceans many processes occur, all working and contributing to these water bodies at same time. The Hydrologic Cycle is very important to the oceans because it removes and deposits water from and to the oceans, also involving lands. An important process of the oceans is the salinity that is the quantity of dissolved solids in the ocean water. Chlorine and sodium are the major components of ocean water, although there are others components like sulfate, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, acids and other substances. In areas of high rainfall on land and in the mouth of large rivers the salinity is lower due to discharge of fresh water from runoff. On the other hand, the sea waters near desserts and enclosed seas are high in salinity. The oceanic circulations are another process of these, for example the thermohaline circulation is the movement of depth water generated by the salinity and temperatures, these circulations distributes the water of the Atlantic Ocean to the rest of the oceans and brings oxygen from surface to depth areas. Surface circulation is the most important and is driven by the winds. These circulations influence the atmosphere and therefore affect the weather, generating most of the atmospheric phenomena. Tides and waves are natural processes of oceans and seas; the tides are the horizontal and vertical movements of the water caused by the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun, every day and depending on the position of the Moon in regard to respect the Earth there are high and low tides. The waves are energy or a periodic disturbance that moves from one part to another over the surface of water, these are generated offshore and arrive to the coast generating breaking waves.

Oceanographic biology is an important part of this discipline. This studies all the life and ecosystems that exists in these water bodies. The marine environment is dominated by some factors like temperatures, depth, salinity, nutrients, acidification, underwater currents, etc. The terrestrial environment, influences the sea and oceans ecosystems, for example, all the nutrients that arrive from lands through rivers are deposited in seas, these nutrients are used by sea plants and other organisms.  The atmosphere also influence in the life of oceans because it provides the majority of gases including oxygen and carbon dioxide.  The oceans harbor life of all kinds and size, from microscopic plants to microscopic animals, also there are the bigger animals of Earth. Into the ocean and seas we have different ecosystems like rocky coasts, the beaches, estuaries, mangroves, marine lagoons, sea grasses, coral reefs, polar zones and also there is life in the deepest areas of the oceans. The majority of these ecosystems have a direct relation with land and therefore with the organisms and humans that live here. In geological terms the oceans plays a very important role, the majority part of sand is originated in the seas, also part of the rocky coast is formed due to the energetic action of waves and these rocks are composed of death sea organisms.

          Only the 5% of the oceans have been explored by humans. We can make an important connection between the humans and the oceans. Throughout our history, human society has been influenced direct or indirectly by oceans and seas. Many historical events have been carried out thanks to these water bodies; example of this was when the European arrives to America from the fifteen century. Also, in the actuality these are used as communication routes, to bring and carry all kinds of merchandise and people, therefore is an important part of tourism. Also are used to realize investigations, as food source, the film industry use it as a setting for movies, in addition it is are part of the economic and political situation of all countries surrounded or boarded by oceans and seas. All these human activities, including those made inland generate pollution that affects adversely the entire ocean, specifically, the organisms and even we. As the weather is influenced by oceans, these can help to produce atmospheric phenomenon like hurricanes, the same that affects the humans, but are an essential part of nature. Keeping and preserving the oceans and seas not only will help to maintain the entire organisms that live there, also will maintain the life in lands and therefore our own life.

References:

Information:

Alonso J., Serie Naturales. (1998). Descubrimiento 9 Ciencia Integrada.         

            Puerto Rico: Ediciones Santillana, Inc.

Earth’s atmosphere and the weather

Earth’s atmosphere and the weather

An application of Earth Sciences is meteorology related with physics and geology. Meteorology is a branch of geophysics that studies atmospheric phenomena, atmosphere’s properties and specifically the relationship between the weather and Earth’s surface and oceans. Through the observation of atmospheric phenomena, meteorologists try to predict and define the interactions of the atmosphere with different systems. This way scientifics can understand and create models of climate and their changes in the future. To understand the weather and atmospheric phenomena, we need to know general things about the atmosphere.

Earth’s atmosphere is a big mass of air that surrounds the planet, it is composed of gases and other necessary elements to maintain living conditions, for this reason there is life on Earth. Also, the atmosphere protects us from sunlight and circulates air around the world. It is held in place thanks to gravity forces and it is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% of other gases. Earth’ atmosphere is subdivided into some layers where the temperature, atmospheric pressure, composition and height varies. The first layer from Earth to space is the troposphere, this is the most important layer and it extends from Earth’s surface up to 5 miles in at the poles and 11 miles at the equator; here is where 90% of the gases exists and it is here where meteorological phenomena and weather occur; also while height increases, temperature and atmospheric pressure decrease. The second layer is the stratosphere, it begins about 11 miles from the troposphere, until 30 miles; here is where the ozone layer is found, a gas responsible of protecting us from Sun’s ultraviolet rays; in this layer temperature increases as height increases, converting oxygen into ozone. The third layer is the mesosphere, the coldest layer of the atmosphere, it extends between 30 until 50 miles above; here the air is very thin and is an important layer because chemical changes occur, including ionization; also is there where meteors burn and create their lights, produced by the friction with the layer. The forth layer is the thermosphere that extends from 50 miles to 500 miles, it contents warmer temperatures, sometimes reaching more than 2,000° F; here is where the space shuttle orbits and the polar lights or aurora occur. The fifth and most external atmosphere’s layer is the exosphere, it extends from 500 miles to 800 miles and is where atoms escape to space and where satellites orbit around the Earth.

As we know, the most meteorological phenomena occurs in the layer most near the Earth’s surface, the troposphere. Although it is important to note that some clouds can reach the stratosphere, the next layer in the atmosphere. These atmospherics phenomena are related with the types of clouds and many atmospheric and Earth factors that can modify this. Hurricanes, winter storms, tornadoes, frontal systems, heavy rains and droughts are some of these meteorological phenomena. For example, tropical storms and hurricanes are phenomenons that occur in the tropical latitudes of Earth, these produce heavy winds and rains as they are formed by the hot waters of oceans and other atmospheric factors. Tornadoes and heavy rains are associated with cumulonimbus clouds formed by the combination of different masses of air with different temperatures and pressures. These are some of the factors that affect the daily weather of our planet.

The weather governs and modifies our life every day. Both rainy and sunny days affect us, and this is determinate to occur by factors in the atmosphere and the oceans. For this reason understanding the weather is important to society, also to know if an atmospheric phenomenon like a hurricane, tornado or heavy rains can affect us. The presence or lack of this phenomenon can generate some problems for society, for example, a frontal system can generate enough rain to produce floods, or on the other hand, the lack of these types of phenomenon can generate droughts. The objective of meteorology is to predict all of this to prepare the population for these natural disasters. 

References:

Information:      

http://www.definicionabc.com/medio-ambiente/meteorologia.php

(2011, February 14). Mi Resuelve Escolar: La atmósfera. Primera Hora.

Pictures:

http://africafedericocarmona.blogspot.es/cache/media/files/00/817/756/2015/06/collages.jpg

http://scied.ucar.edu/sites/default/files/images/large_image_for_image_content/atmosphere_layers_diagram_720x440.jpg

Geology of Puerto Rico

Geology of Puerto Rico

Each of Earth’s regions has a unique geological origin that shows how it formed and the processes which determines its composition. The rocks are the way whereby scientifics study the geology of a region or country. In this case, it will be taken as an example the geology of Puerto Rico to demonstrate how this discipline is important to know the geological history of a region of Earth. This would be a general review of the most important aspects that govern the geology of this archipelago. The geological history of Puerto Rico and its geological province will also be discussed in a general way.

Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands are located in the eastern part of the Greater Antilles between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. The oldest rocks of Puerto Rico date from the Jurassic period (195,000,000 years ago) and are located in the southwest part of the island. This island is formed mostly by volcanic rocks, deposited during the Cretaceous period (135,000,000 years ago). The Cordillera Central of Puerto Rico its a topographical feature and it is composed of primitive volcanic rocks. Puerto Rico experienced certain geological processes that shaped its current formation. The volcanic activity of the Cretaceous period formed scattered islands in the region, recognized as active centers. In the shallow waters around these islands grew corals and calcareous skeletons organisms, these accumulated forming reefs and their skeletal remains became in limestone, these were covered with lava from new volcanic eruptions. The erosive forces of rivers wore and molded the mountains allowing the island to continue emerging, the reefs in the north and south of the island were exposed to surface during the Tertiary period (65,000,000 years ago). The weathering and erosion of the rocks allowed the formation of superficial deposits in the Quaternary period (10,000 years ago).

Geological provinces are characterized by relief and the landform, it constitutes the natural expression of rocks and geological process that have occurred. Puerto Rico is divided into three main geological provinces: igneous province of the central mountainous interior, limestones province and province of surface deposits of the coastal plains. The igneous province of the central mountainous interior is composed of volcanic, plutonic, sedimentary clastic and nonclastic rocks and some metamorphic rocks, is the biggest province and is subdivided into three regions: igneous southwestern province, igneous central province and igneous northeastern province; it covers the Cordillera Central, Sierra de Cayey, Sierra de Luquillo, Sierra Bermeja (with the oldest rocks), some hills, interior valleys and the erosion surface of Barranquitas. Limestone province is subdivided into two regions: limestone northern province and limestone southern province. The limestone northern province goes from Aguada town to Loiza town covering 135 km² and it is where the dissolution of limestone forming sinkhole, caves, caverns, mogotes and karst topography occur, this is produced by its rainy and wet climate; the limestone southern province goes from the coastal area of Cabo Rojo town to the hills of Juana Díaz town and it is composed of limestone much older than the north limestone and not abound sinkholes, caverns, mogotes and karst, this is due to its dry and arid climate which does not allow the limestone to dissolve quickly. The province of surface deposits of the coastal plains is the smallest geological province of Puerto Rico, it includes flat areas near the sea were there are deposited crustal materials from rivers, runoffs and wind. The adjacent islands of Puerto Rico belong to the geological framework of the big island, separated by tectonic events or changes in sea level.

Although Puerto Rico is a small archipelago, its geology is diverse, this is important for human settlements. Constructions created by man are located over terrains with particular geological features. This means that each road, house, building, monument and any infrastructure must be built respecting the geological conditions. Puerto Rico should not be the exception, it is important to study and understand the territory and relief to create safe constructions, avoiding altering the natural and geological processes of these islands. This can reduce devastation from natural disasters and therefore the human losses.  

References:

Information:

Alonso J., Serie Naturales. (1998). Descubrimiento 9 Ciencia Integrada.         

            Puerto Rico: Ediciones Santillana, Inc.

Map:

http://geolboriquen.blogspot.com/2012/02/mapa-geologico-general-de-puerto-rico.html

Pictures:

Luis Espada

The Rocks: Formation and Types

The Rocks: Formation and Types

An essential and important part of Earth Science is geology. Geology is the science that studies the dynamics and physical history of Earth, the rocks of which is it composed and chemical, biological and physical changes that occur on Earth. As is established in the definition, geology studies the composition of Earth, mainly, the rocks. The rocks are aggregates of solid minerals of natural origin, whose components are defined and are arranged inside forming crystals. The Earth is a rocky planet, this mean that most of its mass is in the form of rocks. Therefore, we can study the types, formation and changes of the rocks in a general form. 

First, we need to know the types and formation of the rocks that exist over the Earth’s surface. In Earth there are three kinds or rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic. The same can be classified by their origin, formation, composition and their changes.

Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling the molten rock product of volcanic activity. These rocks are classified into two main subgroups: extrusive igneous or volcanic and intrusive igneous or plutonic. Volcanic rocks consists of fine crystals formed by rapid cooling of lava near the Earth’s surface; some of these rocks are rhyolite, andesite, basalt, scoria, pumice and some pyroclastic rocks (formed by pieces of rocks that have been thrown into the air by volcanic explosion)  like gaps, tuffs, volcanic conglomerates and basaltic flows. On the other hand, the plutonic rocks are composed of thick crystals formed by the slow cooling of the magma inside the Earth’s surface; some of these rocks are granite, granodiorite, diorite, gabbro and periodite. These rocks are exposed to Earth’s surface by erosion and weathering processes.

Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediments or fragments are compacted and cemented, also it accumulates layers upon layers through the years. These rocks are classified onto three main subgroups: clastic, non-clastic and bioclastic. Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed by pieces of other rocks. Example of this are conglomerates, gaps, sandstone, limonite, argillaceous slate. Non-clastic sedimentary rocks are these formed by materials that have precipitated directly from water, rocks like dolomite, flint, halite (salt rock) and gypsum rock are samples of these types of rocks. Bioclastic sedimentary rocks are originated by the accumulation of skeletons of sea plants, animals and coral reef that have died. Limestone is a bioclastic sedimentary rock formed by calcium carbonated and calcite; hard coal, composed by vegetal materials is also a type of these rocks.

Finally, we have the metamorphic rocks that are formed by changes in temperature and pressure of the rock and other chemical processes. These rocks can be formed from other metamorphic rocks, sedimentary or igneous. There exist two types of metamorphism: contact metamorphism and regional metamorphism. Contact metamorphism is produced when igneous rocks and lava flows remains trapped between the layers of other rocks, these are classified as not foliated rocks (rocks without sheets), are formed by chemical reactions, high pressure and temperatures, are subdivided by grain size; marble (originated from limestone and calcite compound) and quartzite (originated from quartzarenite and quartz compound) are not foliated rocks of thick grains; serpentine (a slippery blue-green rock originated from olivine and basalt rocks and quartz and amphibole composed) is a not foliated rock of fine grains. Regional metamorphism is formed more slowly that the contact metamorphism and it includes large regions and it has a deeper metamorphic rock zone, are formed by big pressure and high temperatures, these are classified as foliated rocks (rocks with sheets); schist (originated from phyllite and mica composed) and gneiss (originated from granite or volcanic rocks and composed of different minerals) are foliated rocks of thick grains; phyllite (originated from argillaceous slate and mica, quartz and chlorite composed) and slate (originated from argillaceous slate and mica, quartz, clay and chlorite composed) are foliated rocks of fine grains.

For humans beings the study of rocks is very important. Many monuments, sculptures and buildings are made from different types of rocks. They are also used by sculptors to make buildings and artistic works such as marble. For example cemetery tombstones are made from granite and basalt rocks. The statues are made from sedimentary rocks, specifically limestone rocks. These and other economic uses are indispensable for constructions made by humans over time. 

References:

Information:

Serie Naturales. (1998). Descubrimiento 9 Ciencia Integrada.  Puerto Rico:

Ediciones Santillana, Inc.

    

Curso General de Suelos (AGRO 3005). Laboratorio #3: Rocas y minerales

http://www.geologia.uchile.cl/las-rocas-y-sus-procesos-de-formacion

http://cienciaybiologia.com/rocas-sedimentarias-igneas-metamorficas/

http://www.dictionary.com/browse/geology

Picture:

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/429038301973237753/

Earth Science and it Applications

Earth Science and it Applications

As we know, science is a discipline that consists of many specialties. One of these specialties is Earth science, the science that studies Earth. Although this branch is associated with geology, Earth science is a broader and more comprehensive study of all the Earth. This means, that geology is more specific in the study of the composition and formation of Earth. It is for this reason that Earth science has different applications.

The applications of Earth science are varied. We can identify many sub-branches into this general branch. For example, geology is the study of Earth from a more specific study, this is a related application. Meteorology and climatology are disciplines specialized in the weather and climate patterns, respectively. Earth science also studies water in the planet. Oceanography has the objective to study everything related with the oceans and seas and it interrelates with biology, geology, chemistry and physics; hydrology also studies the water, but only the one present on the Earth’s surface. The natural resources are also an important part of this science, these determinate the energy sources available for human use. Astronomy also has interrelationship with terrestrial studies. Another important application is geography that studies the human interaction with the nature environment.

Like any natural science, Earth science is based on the use of the scientific method. This method consists on a series of steps to resolve a hypothesis with an experiment, with the aim of analyzing the data to support or rule out this hypothesis. With the use of this process we can answer questions like: What is it?, When?, Where?, How? and Why?. Questions as: How sedimentary rocks are formed?, Why the waves are generated?, or Where is it the highest frequency of hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean? are some of many questions that scientists have grappled. This and other questions are answered mostly with the aid of the scientific method.

Earth science is an essential discipline to the other sciences and therefore for humanity. It is responsible for studying the nature and how the humans interact with environment. Also natural phenomena and disasters that affect us directly or indirectly are studied by this science branch. Throughout history human beings have tried to understand nature. For this reason, knowing and understanding our natural environment is very important to us, this is the main role of Earth sciences and their interactions.

References:

Information:

Serie Naturales. (1998). Descubrimiento 9 Ciencia Integrada.  Puerto Rico:

          Ediciones Santillana, Inc.     

Picture:

http://blocs.xtec.cat/blogmedi/files/2014/12/1207791189_f.jpg

Branches of the natural sciences and their interrelationships

Branches of the natural sciences and their interrelationships

Everything around us is studied by science itself. Science is a discipline that includes many others branches. Each branch of science is specialized in different fields. When the principal branches share concepts with each other, we have other disciplines and therefore, their interrelationships. This forms the macroscopic world of science.

Natural Sciences are defined as the study of nature in order to decipher the theories and laws by which the natural word works. Ii is divided into five principal branches: Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Geology, and Astronomy.  Each one has a unique specialty that distinguishes it from the others. Chemistry is the science that studies matter and the changes it undergoes. Physics involves the study of matter from the perspective of its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. Biology is the study of living organisms and their interrelationship with their environment. Geology investigates and studies the Earth, the rocks from which it is composed, and patterns and processes by which they change; it is associated with the discipline of Earth Science. Astronomy involves everything related with celestial space, all that is beyond Earth.

The interrelationship of natural sciences branches generate others sub disciplines. For example, when we combine chemistry and physics, we have physical chemistry, that studies matter with concepts of chemistry and physics combined. Biology and chemistry intertwine to form biochemistry, the chemistry of life. Physics and geology form geophysics and study the forces and motions of the Earth, like the earthquakes. In the same way, astronomy and biology combines to form astrobiology, the science that studies the life beyond Earth. These and others interrelationships are summarized in the science branches pentagon of the main branches of science (in the image), that involve two geometrical figures: a pentagon and a star. Other branches are inside there like ecology, meteorology, kinetic, organic chemistry among others.

           This blog will focus on earth science and geology, but also will have the influence of the other sciences. Therefore this blog will be interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary; this means that integration and knowledge of other disciplines are required. The main objective of science is to build and organize knowledge to understand the nature and the universe with the use of testable explanations and predictions. This is the key to understand every phenomenon that happens in the Earth and beyond.

References:

Academia. Definition of Science The Branches of Science and their Meaning,

            http://www.academia.edu/10792252/Definition_of_Science_The_Branches_of_Science_and_their_Meaning

Serie Naturales. (1998). Descubrimiento 9 Ciencia Integrada.  Puerto Rico:

          Ediciones Santillana, Inc.